Managing Multinational Operations Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Managing Multinational Operations - Assignment Example According to the New Foreign Trade Law amended in April 2004, import goods and technologies are divided into four categories, namely prohibited imports, restricted imports, free imports, and goods under tariff-rate quota management (Hong Kong Trade Development Council). The exports are restricted for resources that are in short supply in China. The foreign currency rules allow enterprises to either sell their foreign exchanges to certain banks or open current foreign currency accounts to keep their foreign exchange. "Foreign-invested enterprises (FIEs) and foreign enterprises have to pay income tax on their income derived from production, business operations and other sources within the territory of China" (Hong Kong Trade Development Council). Income tax on foreign enterprises is levied on an annual basis and paid in advance in quarterly installment (Hong Kong Trade Development Council). The foreign enterprises in preferred sectors are subject to lower income tax rate of 15%. A foreign enterprise can open a foreign exchange settlement account through one of the banks; and can use this fund to make external payments, whenever required. In case additional funds are required, this can be purchased from the bank. A foreign enterprise can also open a foreign exchange capital fund account. Chinese government also allows the foreign enterprises to remit their profits, dividends and bonuses outside the country. ChineseFinancial and accounting system Chinese government requires all companies, including the foreign enterprises to comply with Financial Principles for Enterprises (Hong Kong Trade Development Council). These rules provide guidance to enterprises to develop their financial statements. Intellectual Property Rights China provides various ways to foreign invested enterprises to ensure that their intellectual property is adequately protected. These include various laws and regulations and patent and trademark registration facilities to the foreign investors. Sources of Funds The minimum capital requirement for limited liability company is Rmb30,000 and for joint stock limited companies, it is Rmb5 million. The rules

''FRESCA company-TWO recommendations for improvements for any part of Essay

''FRESCA company-TWO recommendations for improvements for any part of the marketing mix - Essay Example The asset of the company which exceeds 48 million pounds and the annual growth in return of over 393 million net profits presents the need for the company to go public. In so doing, the company products will get more demand especially once they harness the opportunity in the market as the confidence of consumers towards the company will increase. Furthermore, many customers will purchase the shares and they will help in developing and promoting the products image through innovation, contribution, reaching out to the consumers and lifting up the reputation of the firm. To enhance production of quality and healthier produce, the firm source and secure the best and reliable partners. Reputation is an important tool in promotion of a product that will improve once the firm succeeds in going public. The company will be forced to invest more in the creativity and innovation of their products to ensure that ethical trading, quality products, employee development as well as effective customer service are met. The demand for its products will rises, calling for more qualified staff to be employed in the firm as in so doing the quality of their product will not be altered due to overworked staff. The products of the company will be placed to more public attention and scrutiny especially in terms of health and quality standards and due to the fact that the company observes these requirements, hence, its market is sure to grow as Fresca Company observes these requirements. Health is important to the survival of mankind and this is what the company offer, healthy products. Success in increased sales is attributed to the highest quality of produced which surpass the expect ations of customers through embracing a quality product line. As an international company, Fresca Company should take advantage of the virgin, fertile and huge piece of agricultural land in Africa and partner with African countries in the production of

Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation

Biochemical Processes of Oil Degradation 1. INTRODUCTION Surfactants are surface active compound that reduce the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants are organic compound that contain both hydrophobic (head part of the surfactant) and hydrophilic (tail part of the surfactant) moieties. Thus surfactant contains both water insoluble i.e. water repellent group as well as water soluble i.e. water loving group. Biosurfactants are also surface active compound like chemical surfactants but unlike the chemical surfactant, biosurfactant are synthesized by microbes like bacteria, fungi and yeast. Biosurfactants comprise the properties of dropping surface tension, stabilizing emulsions, promoting foaming and are usually non-toxic and biodegradable. Recently interest in biosurfactant has increased because of its diversity, flexibility in operation, and more eco-friendly then chemical surfactant (BS Saharan et al., 2011; Eduardo J. gudiËÅ"na et al., 2011). Biochemical processes of oil degradation carried out by microbes involves several type of enzymatic reactions driven by oxygenase, dehydrogenase and hydroxylase (Hamamura N et al., 2008). These enzymes cause aliphatic and aromatic hydroxidation, oxidative deamination, hydrolysis and other biochemical transformation of original oil substance leading to formation of large number of intermediate degradation products. However, a major limitation of microbial degradation of crude oil is its hyydrophobicity. Biosurfactant produced by oil degrading bacteria facilitate the uptake of crude oil hydrocarbons by bacterial cells and also have low toxicity and high biodegradability (Batista SB et al., 2006). So, crude oil degrading bacteria with the ability to produce biosurfactant is widely recommended for fast degradation of crude oil. (Kumar M et al., 2006). Furthermore possibility of their production on large scale, selectivity, performance under intense conditions and their future applications in environmental fortification also these have been increasingly attracting the attention of the scientific and industrial community. These molecules have a potential to be used in a variety of industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, humectants, food preservative and detergents (BS Saharan et al., 2011). But the production of biosurfactant on industry level is still challenge because of using high costly synthetic media for microbial growth. Biosurfactants are classified on the basis of diversity in their structure and their microbial origin. They contain a hydrophilic group, that contain an acid, peptide cations, or anions, mono-, di- or polysaccharides and a hydrophobic group of unsaturated or saturated hydrocarbon chains or fatty acids. Biosurfactants produced by a variety of microorganisms mainly bacteria, fungi and yeasts are diverse in chemical composition and their nature and the amount depend on the type of microbes producing a particular biosurfactant. 1.1 Classification of Biosurfactant: Biosurfactants are classified in to two major group one is low molecular weight surface active agent call biosurfactant and high molecular weight substance called bio-emulsifier that is especially used as enhancement of emulsification of hydrocarbon. Further these two major group is divided in to six major group known as glycolipids, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins-lipopeptides, phospholipids, hydroxylated and cross linked fatty acids. (a) Glycolipids: Mostly biosurfactants are glycolipds. They are lipids with a carbohydrate attached. The connection is by means of either an ether or ester group. Among the glycolipids, the best known are rhamnolipids sophorolipids and trehalolipids. Fig 1: Glycolipid (b) Rhamnolipids: Rhamnolipids is a group of biosurfactant that studied extensively. These are produced by many species of Pseudomonas and have tremendous antimicrobial activity against several common microorganisms, which is an essential property of all cosmetics due to the daily contamination of the product by the human touch (Lourith N et al., 2009). Rhamnolipids is a type of glycolipid biosurfactant that contain either a one or two molecule of ÃŽ ²-hydroxydecanoic acid. In 1999 the structure of rhamnolipid produced by P. aeruginosa on mannitol and nepthalene by liquid chromotography was compared. And it was found that for mannitol the most common rhamnolipid contained two rhamnoes and two 3-hydroxydecaonic acid and whereas rhamnolipid produced by nepthalene contained two rhamnoes and one 3-hydroxydecaonic acid. Fig 2: Structure of mono and di rhamnolipid (c) Trehalolipids: It is another type of glycolipids that containing trehalose hydrophobic moieties. Such type of biosurfactant structure is diverse in hydrophobic moieties, varying from short fatty acid to long fatty acid chain. In general it is observed that the bacteria showing Gram’s positive produces Trehalolipids biosurfactant (Anderson RJ et al, 1983). Fig 3: Structure of Trehalose lipid (d) Sophorolipids: Such glycolipids are synthesized by yeast; these are the complex mixture of both free acid and lactone form. The acidic SL contain fatty acid as tail where as SL lactonic are formed by the esterification between carboxylic end of the fatty acid and 4† of the sophorose end. Generally lactonic SL has better surface tension lowering property whereas the acidic SL have better potential to form foam and solubility properties (Nuneza A. et al., 2003). Fig 4: Structure of Sophorolipid lactonized and acid Form. 1.2 Lipopeptides and lipoproteins: Lipopeptide biosurfactants are cyclic compounds and they are mostly isolated from Bacillus and Pseudomonas type bacteria Lipopeptides mainly consist of hydrophilic peptides, generally they consist 7 and 10 amino acids long, linked to a hydrophobic fatty acid structure. Bacillus cyclic lipopeptides consist of three major groups known as the surfactin, iturin and fengycin families. Surfactin is the most commonly studied and it contains 7 amino acid cyclic sequences connected to a C13–C16 fatty acid (Kakinuma A. et al.,1969). Fig 5: Structure of aminolipopetide Fig 6: Structure of cyclic aminolipopetide 1.3 Polymeric Biosurfactants: Polymeric biosurfactant are high weight molecular biopolymers which consist polysaccharides, proteins, lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins or mixture of theses biopolymers. A wide variety of microbes produces polymer biosurfactant. Polymer biosurfactant exhibits properties like high viscosity, tensile strength, and resistance to shear. The following are example of different type of polymeric biosurfactant. 1.4 Advantages and Uses of Biosurfactant: The unique properties of biosurfactant (Microbial Surface Active Agents) such as low toxicity, relative ease of preparation and widespread applicability, make it different from chemical synthetic surfactant and now it has become recently an important product of biotechnology for industrial and medical applications and they allow to replacement of chemical synthetic surfactant. They can be used as emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers, wetting agents, spreading agents, foaming agents, functional food ingredients and detergents in various industrial sectors such as, Petroleum and Petrochemicals, Organic Chemicals, Foods and Beverages, Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals, Mining and Metallurgy, Agrochemicals and Fertilizers, Environmental Control and Management, and many others. Table 1. Classification of biosurfactants and their use in remediation of heavy metal and hydrocarbon contaminated sites. (Magdalena Pacwa-PÅ‚ociniczak et al., 2011) Stabilization of the hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Dispersion of limestone in water Stabilization of hydrocarbon-in-water emulsions Alasan Acinetobacter radioresistens KA-53 Biodispersan Acinetobacter calcoaceticus A2 Liposan Candida lipolytica Mannoprotein Saccharomyces cerevisiae There are many advantages of biosurfactant as compare to chemically synthesized surfactants. Some of those are: Biodegradability: Easy to biodegradable as compare to the chemical surfactant (Kosari N, 1992). Low toxicity Biocompatibility and digestibility, that allows their application in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and food seasonings. Easily availability of raw material: The raw material need for production of biosurfactant are easily available, biosurfactant producing microorganism can be isolated from the industrial waste like oil contaminated soil, petrol pump spilled, and also can be isolated from municipal waste. Use in environmental control: Biosurfactants can be efficiently used in handling industrial emulsions, control of oil spills, biodegradation and lowering the toxicity of industrial discharges and in bioremediation of polluted soil. Specificity in their action, since biosurfactant has specific organic functional group and often specific in their action. This is particularly used in lowering the toxicity of the pollutant, used in enhancing the emulsification property, used as raw material in cosmetic, medicinal and foodstuff applications. 1.5 Crude oil spills The crude oil spills are one of the main environmental pollutants. Their abundance and persistence in several polluted environmental areas have been reported (Mohammed M. A., 2004). Oil spillage may be caused by natural disasters like earthquakes in the sea surface or due to accidental leaks during exploration, refining, storage and transportation. The causes can be numerous but the consequences are the same. In case of crude oil, the different types such as heavy or light crude oil can affect the clean-up procedures. Crude oil spreads very rapidly on the sea surface and after a short period of time the thickness of the oil film can be at least 1mm. It is therefore necessary to prevent the spreading to reach the shoreline. Once it reaches the shoreline, it contaminates the soil and cause a great damage to the soil ecosystem as well. Some of the largest oil spills that have taken place all over the world are at Iran, Iraq, Persian Gulf, Uzbekistan, Kuwait, United States, Gulf of Mexico, Pakistan and even in India. The most recent oil spill in India is the spill of ONGC Trunk oil pipeline burst, at Uran, Mumbai on 21st January 2011. Around 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled in Mumbai coast that spread around 4 sq km area. Many such disasters reported one seeping oil from a sinking ship. In August 2010, oil spill at Gopalpur beach Orissa in April 2010 causing the death of many Ridley turtles that breed there during that period. It hence becomes a necessity to clean up this oil in order to save the marine life. Clean-up and recovery of hydrocarbons from an oil spill is difficult and the strategies for cleaning up an oil spill are greatly affected by a variety of factors such as the type of oil spilled, the temperature of the water body, and the types of shorelines and beaches involved. A number of approaches an d technologies have been developed for spreading of oil spills in marine shorelines and freshwater environments. Many mechanical and chemical methods can be applied to clean-up the spills (Zhu et al., 2001). Fig 7: Crude oil spill 1.6 Methods applied in cleaning of oil spills 1.6.1 Physical methods Booms. Skimmers. Manual removal (Wiping). Mechanical removal. Washing. Sediment relocation or Surface washing. Tilling. In-situ burning 1.6.2 Chemical methods Dispersants. Demulsifies. Solidifiers. Surface film chemicals. Although various conventional cleaning methods such as physical methods like the first response selection, rarely achieve complete cleanup of oil spills. According to the Office of Technology Assessment (U.S. Congress, 1991), current mechanical methods typically recover no more than 10-15 percent of the oil after a major spill. Chemical methods are faster in action but they are toxic to the biota present in the spill environment. Bio-surfactants can be used for cleaning of crude oil spillage. 1.7 Hydrocarbons of Crude oil: Oils are further categorized into three broad groups, according to their molecular weight. General statements can be made for each of the three categories namely light weight, medium weight, and heavy weight components (Scholz et al., 1999). Crude oils are composed of various combinations of these three categories with the following general characteristics. 1.7.1 Light Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C1 to C10 which are smaller molecules with few numbers of atoms. They are characterized by high volatility, readily dissolvable and evaporate and leave little or no residue because of their short residence time. Many of these components (e.g., benzene, and toluene) are thought to be more bioavailable to animals by primary exposure route (respiratory system). Being highly flammable and readily inhaled, and therefore are of concern for human health and safety. 1.7.2 Medium Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms ranging from C11 to C22 which have complex molecules. It has low rate of evaporation and dissolves very slowly that take several days with some residue remaining. Not as bioavailable as lower weight components, it is less likely to affect aquatic animals. Its primary exposure route is respiratory system and gets readily absorbed through skin. 1.7.3 Heavy Weight Components: These are components which have carbon atoms more than C23. It has the longest residence time with very little loss due to evaporation or dissolution. It can cause chronic effect through smothering as residue in the water column and sediments (tarballs, etc). Its primary exposure route is direct topical contact. Some heavy weight components contain carcinogens that are absorbed through the skin. Its risk of exposure is increased due to long residence time, probability of contact, and adsorption property of the oil components. Table 2: List of oil spill incidents since 2010 1.8 Oil Spills and Their Effects: Recently on 21st January 2011, ONGC trunk oil pipeline burst at Uran, Mumbai. About 40 to 45 metric tons of oil was spilled and spread around 4 sq km area. On 7th August, 2010 a foreign cargo ship, collided with another vessel about 10 km off Mumbai harbor, that spilled the oil in spite of the hectic effect made by Navy and Coast Guard to contain the leak, around 700 tons of fuel oil and 28 tons of diesel oil was spilled. Thousands of eggs of the endangered Olive Ridley Turtles on the beach adjoining river Rushikulya in Ganjam district have failed to hatch this year because of the recent 924 tons of furnace oil spill at a nearby port. Rushikulya Sea turtle protection committee have found that the hatching of the eggs, which ended last week, have gone down by 40 to 50 percent this year as the eggs, numbering thousands, got spoiled after the leaked oil soaked the nesting site on the beach. A number of incidents have been reported happening every year. Some of the oil spill incidents ar e listed in the Table 2. Oil spills kill wildlife and damage the ecosystem that can last for generations by forcing changes in reproduction and compromising complex food webs. Oil spill damage to the waterways of birds and animals, destroys the animal immune systems, interrupt breeding and fouling of breeding grounds. Besides, they thin bird and turtle egg shells and also damage the fish larvae, causing deformities. They cause damage to sea grass beds and other shelter/feeding areas, tainting of algae, which perform a vital role in waterway ecosystems. Due to oil spill on soil the insects and worms living in it are killed due to hydrocarbon toxicity, lack of oxygen supply and it reduce the pH of the soil. This affects the fertility of soil and its productivity in terms of the growth of plants (Wokocha G.A., 2011). As a result soil eco system is getting disturbed and it effects the plant growth. Soil oil also contaminates ground water and it causes illness to the human beings and animals when consumed.

A Healing Touch? Essay -- Child Psychology Psychological Papers

A Healing Touch? Several weeks ago in our biology, Professor Grobstein mentioned that his college seminar class was holding a bake sale in our campus center. He approached his sales pitch by asking if we were stressed from the workload of the end of the semester. Inevitably we all nodded our heads in agreement that the homework had begun to take its toll. He urged us all to support his class's efforts and their somewhat atypical offer including an optional hug with the purchase of a brownie. After class I found myself thinking about his association with stress and the need for a hug. I know from personal experience that a hug or even a pat on the back can cheer me up. I've also read that people who make appropriate physical contact in business transactions-a firm handshake or a hand on the shoulder-are more likely to land the deal than those who keep to themselves. However, the necessity of physical interaction goes beyond the role of a mere stress reliever or business etiquette; rather it is essential to the development of an infant-both socially and physically. Among the most well known experiments on the subject were those of Harry Harlow in the 1950s and 1960s. Through his series of tests with infant monkeys and their application to humans, he brought a new understanding of child psychology and our own behavior (7). Until his experiments, most scientists assumed that the affection infants displayed for their mothers was an association between the mother and the quenching of primary needs-hunger, thirst, and pain (11). Harlow ran a series of experiments in which he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers six to twelve hours after birth (6). At first he raised the infant monkeys i... ...ers.rcn.com/napier.interport/cwm/experim.html 7) Harry Harlow , from The Psi Cafà © http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Harlow.htm 8) Birth and the Origins of Violence http://www.birthpsychology.com/violence/prescott.html 9) Alienation of Affection http://www.violence.de/prescott/pt/article.html 10) Rock A Bye Baby , Time Life documentary and summary http://www.violence.de/tv/rockabye.html 11)The Nature of Love, from Classics in the History of Psychology http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm 12) The Journey Home: A Romanian Adoption , from CBC http://www.tv.cbc.ca/witness/rom/romhis.htm 13)"Nature" And "Nurture" Interact In Sequential Stages , from Classrooms of the 21st Century http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/SER/BE/whatc.html 14) A Decisive Decade of Protection , from Unicef http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm A Healing Touch? Essay -- Child Psychology Psychological Papers A Healing Touch? Several weeks ago in our biology, Professor Grobstein mentioned that his college seminar class was holding a bake sale in our campus center. He approached his sales pitch by asking if we were stressed from the workload of the end of the semester. Inevitably we all nodded our heads in agreement that the homework had begun to take its toll. He urged us all to support his class's efforts and their somewhat atypical offer including an optional hug with the purchase of a brownie. After class I found myself thinking about his association with stress and the need for a hug. I know from personal experience that a hug or even a pat on the back can cheer me up. I've also read that people who make appropriate physical contact in business transactions-a firm handshake or a hand on the shoulder-are more likely to land the deal than those who keep to themselves. However, the necessity of physical interaction goes beyond the role of a mere stress reliever or business etiquette; rather it is essential to the development of an infant-both socially and physically. Among the most well known experiments on the subject were those of Harry Harlow in the 1950s and 1960s. Through his series of tests with infant monkeys and their application to humans, he brought a new understanding of child psychology and our own behavior (7). Until his experiments, most scientists assumed that the affection infants displayed for their mothers was an association between the mother and the quenching of primary needs-hunger, thirst, and pain (11). Harlow ran a series of experiments in which he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers six to twelve hours after birth (6). At first he raised the infant monkeys i... ...ers.rcn.com/napier.interport/cwm/experim.html 7) Harry Harlow , from The Psi Cafà © http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Harlow.htm 8) Birth and the Origins of Violence http://www.birthpsychology.com/violence/prescott.html 9) Alienation of Affection http://www.violence.de/prescott/pt/article.html 10) Rock A Bye Baby , Time Life documentary and summary http://www.violence.de/tv/rockabye.html 11)The Nature of Love, from Classics in the History of Psychology http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Harlow/love.htm 12) The Journey Home: A Romanian Adoption , from CBC http://www.tv.cbc.ca/witness/rom/romhis.htm 13)"Nature" And "Nurture" Interact In Sequential Stages , from Classrooms of the 21st Century http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/SER/BE/whatc.html 14) A Decisive Decade of Protection , from Unicef http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm

Ethical Counseling Essay

The code of ethics was created to assist and benefit members of the American Counseling Association. The code of ethics mission statement discusses what counselors should aspire to do in an ethical manner and also explains how they can be responsible counselors who protect themselves against complaints. The code of ethics is sometimes revised because individuals of the ACA develop useful material that will protect counselors. The code of ethics focuses on examining benefits of interactions with clients, students, and supervisees within and outside the clinical setting. (Herlihy&Corey, 2006) Similarities in Code of Ethics When comparing the ACA and the AMHCA code of ethics, one will notice they both provide guidance, training and direction toward making ethic decisions for their members. They both explain a variety of professional situations to a practicing counselor. The two codes also share relation due to their commitment of students, employee, and supervisory relationships. When employees become involved with clients this could cause issues and end horribly for all parties involved including companies. Differences in the Code of Ethics One huge difference in the ACA and the AMHAC code of ethics is how violations of the code of ethics are addressed by the organizations and codes. The ACA code of ethics mentions a process for processing ethical violations. The AMHAC does not adjudicate, investigate or mention ethical complaints but it does say actions may be taken regarding a member’s membership based upon their licensure. Record keeping is also different between these two codes. The AMHAC code of ethics has certain guidelines regarding communication, record keeping, use of assessment tools and retention. The ACA code of ethics does not specify such requirements. Future Code of Ethics and Counseling Code of Ethics for counselors was created in order to guide and protect counselors from making unethical decisions and avoiding legal issues. Once I become a counselor I will always refer to the code of ethics, lawyers, mentors, and colleagues for advice with troubling cases. The ethical standards casebook presents different case studies that will allow me to analyze and manage cases of my own. When counseling my clients I will refer to the code of ethics for assurance of unethical choices. The code of ethics will also provide me with guidance and information that will protect me from complaining and dissatisfied clients. Being a counselor involves making ethical decisions and I know decisions will be challenging to arrive at during times. I plan to look at all of my cases in an ethical and professional way. I will take multicultural and diversity values and beliefs into consideration when counseling clients from different cultures. I fully understand that being bias and influencing clients is not ethical performance. (Herlihy&Corey,2006) (page 14) Code of Ethics This course explains the code of ethics and introduces certain dilemmas counselors could very well face while practicing. Referring to the code of ethics may still leave a counselor puzzled as to how to handle a special case if it has not been addressed before. Members of the ACA make revisions to the code of ethics because times are changing and new events occur. I look forward to learning more about ethics, legal and professional issues in this course so I can be an excellent counselor.

AP Government Essay

527 Organizations- organizations that raise and spend money to advance political causes Blanket Primary- a primary election in which each voter may vote for candidates from both parties Caucus (electoral)- Closed Primary- an election in which voting is limited to already registered party members Coattails- The alleged tendency for candidates to get more votes in the election because their at the top of the ticket. general election- held to choose which candidate will hold office gerrymandering- drawing the boundaries of legislative districts in bizarre or unusual shapes to favor one party incumbent- The person already holding an elective office  independent expenditures- spending by political action committees, corporations, or labor unions that is done to help a party or candidate but is done independently of them malapportionment- drawing the boundaries of legislative districts so that they are unequal in population open primary- a primary election in which voters may choose in which party to vote as they enter the polling place political action committee- set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations reapport ionment- position issue- an issue about which the public is divided and rival candidates or political parties adopt different policy positions primary election- held to choose candidates for office  prospective voting- voting for a candidate because you favor his or her ideas for handling issues retrospective voting- voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions in office runoff primary- A second primary election held when no candidate wins a majority of the votes in the first primary soft money- funds obtained by political parties are spent on party  activities, but not on a specific candidate sophomore surge- an increase in the votes congressional candidates usually get when they first run for reelection valence issue- An issue about which the public is united and rival candidates or political parties adopt similar positions in hopes that each will be thought to best represent those widely shared beliefs Five differences between congressional and Presidential campaigns are Presidential races are much more competitive A smaller portion of people vote in congressional races during off years than vote for the president. Members of congress can do things for their constituents that a president cannot A candidate for congress can avoid being held accountable for the â€Å"mess in Washington† More voters participate in congressional elections The five tasks that one must complete in order to run for the presidency is Get mentioned as someone who is of presidential caliber -travel around the world making speeches like Ronald Reagan which will put you on the radar. Shoot for over 12 in a day Devote lots of time! -Many candidates devote countless amounts of time, in terms of years. It is especially important to start sooner if you are not already known. However, you must be smart about your spending because you don’t want to go broke before the general elections begin! Try devoting a good four- six year of campaigning like Ronald Reagan. Get Money -You need a certain amount of money in order to get your name on the radar. To be eligible for federal matching grants to pay for primary campaign , you must first raise at least $5,000 in individual contributions of $250 or less in twenty states. Get Organized -You will need to raise a ton of money in order to campaign efficiently, but in order to do that, you will need a support system. Getting organized by hiring lawyers, accountants, a press secretary, travel scheduler, advertising specialist, direct mail company, pollster, volunteers and fundraisers will help the candidate stay on top of their game plan. Pick Strategy and themes -Choose your game plan wisely. Whether or not you are an incumbent should also determine what strategy a candidate chooses to take. You must also consider such factors as what type of tone your campaign will have, whether or not it will have a theme, timing, and what audience you would like to target. Incumbents are reelected to Congress over 90 percent of the time Seats are apportioned in each House of Congress according to Article 1 section 2 in the Constitution District boundaries can profoundly affect the outcome of the election due to problems of malapportionment, which is when one district is significantly bigger than than the other, requiring more votes in order to elect a representative. Gerrymandering was also an issue for it draws boundaries in odd shapes which in turn favors one party over another. The four problems to solve in deciding who gets represented in the House is Establishing the total size of the House Allocating seats in the House among the states Determining the size of congressional districts within states Determining the shape of those districts A candidate wins a party’s nomination by gathering enough voter signatures to get on the ballot in a primary election. They win their party’s nomination by getting more primary votes than the next candidate. Seats are reapportioned every ten years. In 1964, the Court ruled that the constitution requires that districts be drawn so that as nearly as possible, one person’s vote would be worth as much as another. Incumbents have the advantage of reelection in Congressional elections Due to the sophomore surge, members of Congress get 8 to 10 percent more votes than when they were first reelected. Two consequences of how congressmen/women are elected are that it produces legislators who are closely tied to local concerns and second, it ensures that party leaders will have relatively weak influence over them. Local orientation of members of congress has important affects on policy making for example, if you have a representative in a certain committee of Congress, your state has a higher chance of directly benefiting from whatever it is the committee can provide. Delegates tend to value reelection  over anything else and seek out committee assignments and projects that will produce benefits for their districts. On the other hand, trustees will seek out committee assignments that give them a chance to address large questions that may not even affect their districts. What works in a primary election may not work in a general election, and vice versa, in part because different elections or caucuses attracts a different mix of voters. The Iowa caucus is the first real test for candidates, so any slip at this caucus is a major disadvantage to the candidate due to the media attention and contributor interest. Primary voters tend to be more ideologically polarized than the average voter. Position issues are issues that are addressed during a candidates running for office in which he or she must make a stand on. These issues tend to share opposing views for the rival candidates and may also split the voters opinion. For example, in the recent election of Obama and Romney, tax cuts and the Obama medicare plan proved to be position issues. Valence issues do not require one to take a side, rather it i nvolves an issue in which everyone agrees, regardless of party identification. For example, in the Romney and Obama election, stronger education and school systems proved to be a valence issue. Television, Debates, and direct mail may influence campaigns in a variety of ways. Depending on the type of person who is absorbing the spots, visuals, and debates. For example, visuals and television newscasts may give the viewer less information than commercial spots. Visuals in some cases on the other hand, can be a vital part in a campaign because they cost very little and as news they may have greater credibility with the viewer. There are two different kinds of elections: general and primary. Primary elections are held to see who shall be nominated to run in the general election as a candidate, and the general election chooses who will take office. Some are closed while others are open,so one may have to declare in advance that they are registered to vote or you can go to an open primary where you decide which party’s primary you would like to participate right there and then. A presidential primary is used to pick delegates to the nominating conventions of the major parties. Candidates can get around â€Å"slips of the tongue† by relying on stock speeches. Since the 1960’s, television was used as a form of contesting campaigns and used largely to conduct campaigns. The internet made possible sophisticated direct-mail campaigning which in turn makes it  possible for a candidate to address specific appeals to particular voters easily and rapidly solicit campaign contributions Sources of campaign money for members of Congress come from their own pockets, private sources, or is raised from individuals, interest groups, or the political parties. For presidential candidates, money sources comes from private donors and the federal government, whereas Congress candidates rely on themselves or private sources to donate. Major Federal Campaign Finance Rules General -contributions and expenditures reported to FEC -Anything over $100 must be disclosed with name, address, and occupation of contributor -Nothing over $100 -no ceiling on how much candidates may spend out of their own money Individual contributions -can’t give more than $2,000 -no gifts exceeding $95,000 every two years. $37,500 goes to candidates Political Action Committees -each corporation, union, etc may establish one -Must register 6 months in advance, have at least 50 contributors, and give at least 5 candidates Ban on Soft Money -no union or corporation can give away own money from treasury to any national party Independent Expenditures -corps, unions, associations, can’t use own money to fund electioneering communications referring to candidates sixty days before gen. Election and 30 days before primary -PACs can fund electioneering up to their limits Presidential Primaries -Federal matching funds can be given to match individual contributions up to $250 or less -candidate must raise $5,000 in 20 states, with contributions of $250 or less Presidential Election -gov will pay all campaign costs up to legal limits of major party candidates and part of the cost of minor party candidates. The 2004 presidential election was unique because of the following factors: the war in Iraq, Bush running for second term which gave him an up in the electoral votes, Bush and Kerry won the same states that Bush and Gore won in 2000, and also  because of the high voter turnout. Minor-party candidates can get federal campaign money if they have won at least 5 percent of the vote in the last election. This has only happened once in 2000 The 1973 Campaign Finance Law created the problems of independent expenditures and soft money. The three changes to the Campaign Finance reform act was the banishment of soft money, raising the limits of independent contributions from $1,000 to $2,000, and it sharply restricted independent expenditures made by corporations, labor unions, and trade associations by restricting these organizations from using their own money to mention a clearly identified federal candidate in advertisement 60 days prior to the general election and thirty days prior to the primary election A suit formed against this law and stated that restricting an organization from mentioning a candidate prior to general and primary elections was a violation of freedom of speech. The Supreme Court upheld almost all of the law and stated it was not a violation. The NORC analysis states that if the recount of votes in Florida had not been halted by the U.S Supreme Court, Bush still would have won, also if hand counts in only four heavily democratic Florida counties had been was granted, Bush still would have won. However, if the same â€Å"equal protection† standard the U.S Supreme Court wanted to use but said there was not enough time, Al Gore would have won 527 Organizations are allowed to spend their money on politics as long as they don’t coordinate with a candidate or lobby directly with that person During peacetime, the state of the economy, the political party affiliation, and the character of the candidates generally decides who becomes presidential The pocketbook vote is the idea that the party holding the White House during good economic times will do well, however if the economy is not doing so well, neither will the party. It is hard to determine who’s pocketbook the voting does because how a person is doing financially will sway their vote on how they believe the good or bad economy will affect them. Besides money, religion, abortion, political reporting, and the vice-presidential nominee does not make much difference in the outcome of the election It is easier for incumbents to raise money because they are already well known to begin with, they can provide services to their districts, send free mail to their constituents, and can get free publicity by sponsoring legislation or  conducting an investigation The Republicans won nine presidential elections between 1968 and 2000 because democrats are not as committed to their parties as republicans are, Republicans have a higher percentage of independent voters, and there is a higher percentage of Republicans voting in the elections. A citizen does not need to be well informed politically to play an important in elections because despite the lack of knowledge in a certain field of politics, citizens ten to know more about the things that interest them. If it was a requirement for every citizen to be so well informed, citizenship in itself would be an occupation, taking up more time in people’s lives than they would want. A prospective voter is forward thinking. They consider both sides of views, including the opponent, and cast their votes for the person they feel will handle the matters more effectively. Perspective voters might focus on big issues such as abortion, nuclear energy, or school busing. A retrospective voter thinks backwardly, meaning they look to the recent past to determine whether or not the economy is doing well. If the economy is doing well, retrospective voters tend to vote for the party that currently occupies the White House, however if the economy was sour, these voters vote against the party in the White House. A prospective voter would focus greatly on economic issues, such as inflation. Campaigns make a difference in elections by reawakening partisan loyalties of voters, giving voters the chance to see how candidates handles pressure and how they apply it, and campaigns also allows voters to judge the character and values of a candidate. Thematic campaigning, negative ads, and the demands of single issue groups have impacted elections in the decision making process of the â€Å"right† candidate during the primary. A loyal coalition of democrats would be African Americans. In almost every election, two-thirds or more vote democratic A loyal coalition of Republicans would be The most loyal members of political parties does not have the most influence because they typically make up a small portion of the electorate. It is very hard to determine how a policies will be affected by elections is because there are so many offices to be filled and the ability it unite political parties under one policy is weak.